Napoleon's Death 1821: Cancer or Arsenic?

Exile on Saint Helena

After his defeat at Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The island was managed by England and far from Europe, making it difficult for Napoleon to escape or communicate with his supporters. He lived in Longwood House with a small staff.

Napoleon spent his final years writing memoirs, conversing with his staff, and receiving limited visits. The island's governor, Hudson Lowe, imposed strict surveillance that frustrated Napoleon. Their relationship was poor, and Napoleon often complained about the restrictions on his freedom.

Health Condition

Since 1819, Napoleon's health declined. He experienced stomach pain, nausea, loss of appetite, and weight loss. His attending doctor, Barry O'Meara, suspected liver or stomach disease. However, Napoleon refused some treatment suggestions and did not always follow the doctor's advice.

In 1821, his condition rapidly worsened. He suffered severe pain, vomiting, and weakness. Doctor Francesco Antommarchi, who arrived later, noted symptoms pointing to a stomach disorder. Napoleon himself suspected he had the same illness as his father, who died of stomach cancer.

Death on May 5, 1821

Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, at the age of 51. His last words, quoted in various versions, included France, the army, and Jesus. His death was witnessed by his staff and attending doctors. His body was initially buried on Saint Helena before being moved to France in 1840.

Napoleon's death sparked speculation from the beginning. Some of his supporters accused the English of deliberately hastening his death, while the English stated he died of natural illness. The debate has continued for more than two centuries, producing various theories.

Autopsy and Diagnosis

Antommarchi performed an autopsy and reported a large ulcer in the stomach, which he described as cancer. The report also mentioned abnormal liver and other organ conditions. However, the autopsy was conducted without modern procedures, and Antommarchi's notes were incomplete and later debated by other doctors.

Some attending doctors concluded that Napoleon suffered from stomach cancer, which might have spread. Family history supported this diagnosis, as his father and sister also died of stomach cancer. However, the size and location of the ulcer could not be verified with current medical standards.

Arsenic Theory

In the 1960s, Sten Forshufvud, a Swedish dentist, analyzed Napoleon's hair and found high levels of arsenic. He proposed that Napoleon was gradually poisoned. The theory gained popularity and sparked interest in the possibility of political murder.

Some supporters of the arsenic theory pointed to the wallpaper in Longwood House, which contained arsenic-based green pigment, as well as wine and medicines that might have been contaminated. Napoleon's symptoms, such as stomach pain and weakness, were considered consistent with arsenic poisoning. However, these symptoms could also be explained by cancer and its complications.

Debate and Evidence

High levels of arsenic in the hair do not automatically prove murder. Arsenic was present in the 19th-century environment, including in medicines, cosmetics, and building materials. Additionally, hair can absorb arsenic from the environment after death, so the analysis results need to be interpreted carefully.

Modern research examining medical records and family history tends to support the diagnosis of stomach cancer as the primary cause. However, there is no absolute consensus, as Napoleon's body cannot be examined with modern technology and forensic evidence is limited. The theory of murder remains an unproven hypothesis.

Modern Research

In 2007, an Italian research team published an analysis concluding that Napoleon died of stomach cancer, not arsenic poisoning. They compared autopsy records with modern medical data and assessed that the course of his illness matched advanced-stage cancer.

Other studies continue to discuss the possibility of environmental factors and treatment. However, there is no documentary evidence indicating a plot to murder Napoleon on Saint Helena. Most historians accept that his death was caused by illness, while the arsenic theory remains part of the public's fascination with historical mysteries.

Historical Legacy

Napoleon's death is one of the examples of how medical history can intertwine with politics and myth. His controversial figure makes every detail about his life and death a subject of debate. Conspiracy theories about his death persist due to a combination of exile, surveillance, and medical uncertainty.

To French history, Napoleon remains a symbol of ambition, reform, and war. His death on a remote island closed the chapter of a leader who once ruled much of Europe. To this day, his tomb at Les Invalides serves as a place of honor and a reminder of the price of power.